Conceptualization of Culture and Ethnicity within Social Work in Two Indigenous Communities
Implications for Culturally Adequate Social Work
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31265/jcsw.v13i2.174Abstract
This qualitative study compares social work in Sami communities within Norway and Native American communities in Montana in the US. A total of 39 social workers were interviewed. We investigated the conceptualization of culture and ethnicity, as well as the implications of these constructions for a culturally adequate social work practice. We find that social workers in Sápmi conceptualize culture and ethnicity as hybrid and fluid, while the social workers in Native American communities have a more fixed and static conceptualization. When working in Native American communities, social workers’ theme of inequality among groups, and the continuing effect of assimilation on family life. Among social workers in Sami communities in Norway, little attention is given to power relations among ethnic groups. These differences in construction affect both the framing and the legitimacy of culturally adequate social work within these two contexts.
References
Allardt, E. (1981). Ethnic Minorities. In E. Allardt, N. Andrén, E. Friis, G. Gíslason, S. Nilson, H. Valen, F. Wendt, & F. Wisti (Eds.), Nordic democracy: Ideas, issues, and institutions in politics, economy, education, social and cultural affairs of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Copenhagen, Denmark: Det Danske Selskab
Anaya, S. J. (2004). Indigenous Peoples in International Law. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Belone, C., Gonzalez-Santin, E., Gustavsson, N., MacEachron, A. E., & Perry, T. (2002). Social services: The Navajo way. Child Welfare, 81(5), 773-790.
Bennett, B., Zubrzycki, J., & Bacon, V. (2011). What Do We Know? The Experiences of Social Workers Working alongside Aboriginal People. Australian Social Work, 64(1), 20-37.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2010.511677
Bernardi, B. (1978). The concept and dynamics of culture. Berlin/Boston, Germany/Massachusetts: De Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110807745
Bhabha, H. K. (1994/2004). The Location of Culture (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge Classics.
Blaikie, N. (2010). Designing Social Research (2nd ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.
Boine, E. M. (2004). Den kulturelle kontekstens betydning i sosialt arbeid i Sápmi [The meaning of cultural context in social work in Sápmi]. In H. Eidheim & V. Stordahl (Eds.), Kulturmøte og terapi i Sápmi [The meeting of culture and therapy in Sápmi] (2nd ed., pp. 63-82). Vaasa, Finland: Davvi Griji.
Boine, E. M. (2007). Samisk kulturkompetanse og nettverksbygging [Sámi cultural competence and network building]. Tromsø, Norway: Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child protection Development Centre in Northern Norway].
Boine, E. M. (2012). Minoritetskultur i barneverninstitusjon [Minority culture in child protection institutions]. In R. G. Gjærum, M. Saus, & A. Strandbu (Eds.), Barns inntrykk, uttrykk og avtrykk: Om kreativitet og medbestemmelse [Children's impressions, expressions and interpretations: On creativity and co-determination] (Vol. BUKS 56). Odense, Denmark: Syddansk universitetsforlag.
Boine, E. M., & Saus, M. (2012). Saamelaisten isien Kasvatusstrategioita [The child rearing strategies of Sami fathers]. In A. Lauriala (Ed.), Koulu ja pohjoisen pojat [The school and the boys of the north]. Rovaniemi, Finland: University of Lapland Lapin Yliopisto.
Brave Heart, M. Y. H., & DeBruyn, L. M. (1998). The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 8(2), 56-78.
https://doi.org/10.5820/aian.0802.1998.60
Burford, G., & Hudson, J. (2000). General introduction: Family group conferencing programming. In G. Burford & J. Hudson (Eds.), Family group conferencing - New directions in community-centred child & family practice. New York, New York: Transaction Publishers.
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016). Racial Disproportionality and Disparity in Child Welfare. Retrieved from the Children's Bureau, file:///H:/Downloads/Child%20Welfare%20infromation%20Gateway.pdf
Comaroff, J. (1996). Ethnicity, Nationalism, and the Politics of Differense in an Age of Revolution. In E. Wilmsen & P. McAllister (Eds.), The Politics of Difference. Ethnic Premises in a World of Power. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
Crampton, A. (2015). Decolonizing Social Work "Best Practices" through a Philosophy of Impermanence. Journal of Indigeneous Social Development, 4(1), 1-11.
Dankertsen, A. (2014). Samisk artikulasjon: Melankoli, tap og forsoning i en (nord)norsk hverdag [Sami articulation: Melancholy, loss and reconciliation in (Northern) Norwegian day-to-day life]. (Doctoral dissertation), Nordland University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Bodø, Norway.
Dogan, M. (2002). Strategies in comparative sociology. Comparative Sociology, 1(1), 63-92.
https://doi.org/10.1163/156913202317346755
Drywater-Whitekiller, V. (2014). Family Group Conferencing: An Indigenous Practice Approach to Compliance With the Indian Child Welfare Act. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 8, 260-278.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2014.907102
Eriksen, A., Hansen, K. L., Javo, C., & Schei, B. (2015). Emotional, physical and sexual violence among Sami and non-Sami populations in Norway: The SAMINOR 2 questionnaire study. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 43(6), 588-596.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494815585936
Eriksen, T. H., & Sørheim, T. (2006). Kulturforskjeller i praksis. Perspektiver på det flerkulturelle Norge [Cultural differences in practice. Perspectives on multicultural Norway] (4th ed.). Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Evans-Campbell, T. (2008). Historical Trauma in American Indian/Native Alaska Communities: A Multilevel Framework for Exploring Impacts on Individuals, Families, and Communities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 316-338.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312290
Fisher-Borne, M., Cain, J. M., & Martin, S. L. (2015). From mastery to accountability: Cultural humility as an alternative to cultural competence. Social Work Education, 34(2), 165-181.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2014.977244
Fong, R., Spickard, P. R., & Ewalt, P. L. (1995). A Multiracial Reality: Issues for Social Work. Social Work, 40(6), 725-728.
Godinet, M. T., Arnsberger, P., Li, F., & Kreif, T. (2010). Disproportionality, Ohana Conferencing, and the Hawai'i Child Welfare System. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 4, 387-405.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2010.526898
Goulding, D., Steels, B., & McGarty, C. (2016). A cross-cultural research experience: Developing an appropriate methodology that respectfully incorporates both Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(5), 783-801.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1081960
Haavind, H. (2000). Kjønn og fortolkende metode. Metodiske muligheter i kvalitativ forsking [Gender and interpretative methods. Methodological opportunities in Qualitative research]. Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Akademiske.
Hart, M. A. (2010). Indigenous Worldviews, Knowledge, and Research: The Development of an Indigenous Research Paradigm. Indigenous Voices in Social Work, 1(1), 1-16.
Henriksen, J. E. (2004a). Den samiske storfamilien i et nettverksperspektiv [The Sami extended family from a network-based perspective]. In I. M. Tronvoll, A. Moe, & J. E. Henriksen (Eds.), Hjelp i kontekst [Help in context] (pp. 40-59). Otta, Norway: Idut.
Henriksen, J. E. (2004b). Det kultur-kontekstuelle nettverksdiagrammet som redskap i familieråd og nettverksarbeid [The culture-contextual network diagram as a tool in family group conferencing and network work]. In I. M. Tronvoll, A. Moe, & J. E. Henriksen (Eds.), Hjelp i kontekst [Help in context] (pp. 60-72). Otta, Norway: Idut.
Henriksen, J. E. (2016). From housing campaign to multicultural understanding: The development of professional social work in Sámi areas in Norway. International Social Work, 59(5), 587-599.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816648203
Herring, S., Spangaro, J., Lauw, M., & McNamara, L. (2013). The Intersection of Trauma, Racism, and Cultural Competence in Effective Work with Aboriginal People: Waiting for Trust. Australian Social Work, 66(1), 104-117.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2012.697566
Herzberg, L. (2013). Shared decision-making: A voice for the Lakota people. Child & Family Social Work, 18(4), 477-486.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2012.00867.x
Hill, R. B. (2007). An analysis of racial/ethnic disproportionality and disparity at the national, state, and county levels: Casey-CSSP Alliance for Racial Equity in Child Welfare.
Jacobs, M. A., & Saus, M. (2012). Child Welfare Services for Indigenous Populations: A Comparison of Child Welfare Histories, Policies, Practices and Laws for American Indians and Norwegian Sámis. Child Care in Practice, 18(3), 271-290.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2012.683777
Jenkins, R. (2008). Rethinking Ethnicity. Arguments and Explorations (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, London; New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications.
Johansen, S. B. (2004). "...har alltid levd i fred og fordragelighet med hverandre." Problemer i kjølvannet av fornorskningen [''...have always lived in peace and tolerance with each other''. Problems in the aftermath of Norwegianisation]. In H. Eidheim & V. Stordahl (Eds.), Kulturmøte og terapi i Sápmi [The meeting of culture and therapy in Sápmi] (2nd ed., pp. 83-106). Finland: Davvi Girji.
Järvensivu, L., Pohjola, A., & Romakkaniemi, M. (2016). Locating Sámi social work in Finland: Meanings produced by social workers in working with Sámi people. International Social Work, 59(5), 600-613.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816646817
Kirmayer, L. J., Gone, J. P., & Moses, J. (2014). Rethinking Historical Trauma. Transcult Psychiatry, 51(3), 299-319. doi:10.1177/1363461514536358
https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514536358
Kraus, P. A. (2015). Democracy's Challenge: Nordic Minority Politics in the European Context. In P. A. Kraus & P. Kivisto (Eds.), The Challenge of Minority Integration Politics and Policies in the Nordic Nations. Warschau, Poland and Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110441116
Križ, K., & Skivenes, M. (2013). Systemic differences in views on risk: A comparative case vignette study of risk assessment in England, Norway and the United States (California). Children and Youth Services Review, 35(11), 1862-1870.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.001
Lawler, M. J., LaPlante, K. D., Giger, J. T., & Norris, D. S. (2012). Overrepresentation of Native American Children in Foster Care: An Independent Construct? Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 21, 95-110.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2012.647344
Lawrence, J. (2000). The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women. American Indian Quarterly, 24(3), 400-419.
https://doi.org/10.1353/aiq.2000.0008
Lupton, C., & Nixon, P. (1999). Empowering Practice? A critical appraisal of the family group conference approach. Bristol, United Kingdom: The Policy Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t88xs6
Mills, M., Van de Bunt, G. G., & De Bruijn, J. (2006). Comparative research: Persistent problems and promising solutions. International Sociology, 21(5), 619-631.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580906067833
Nicolai, S. S., & Saus, M. (2013). Acknowledging the past while looking to the future: Conceptualizing indigenous child trauma. Child Welfare, 92(4), 55.
Niles, M. D., & Byers, L. G. (2008). History Matters: United States Policy and Indigenous Early Childhood Intervention. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 9(3), 191-201.
https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2008.9.3.191
NOU 1984: 18. Om samenes rettsstilling [On the legal status of the Sami]. Retrieved from Oslo, Norway: Justisdepartementet.
Nygård, R. H., & Saus, M. (2016). Emphasizing indigenous communities in social work research ethics. International Social Work, 59(5), 666-678.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816646815
Oskal, N. (2003). Samisk offentlighet og demokrati på norsk [The Sami public sphere and democracy in Norwegian]. In B. Bjerkli & P. Selle (Eds.), Samer, Makt og Demokrati. Sametinget og den nye samiske offentligheten [The Sami, Power and Democracy. The Sami Parliament and the new Sami public sphere] (pp. 318-337). Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal.
Pettersen, T. (2015). Sámi ethnicity as a variable. Premises and implications for population-based studies on health and living conditions in Norway. UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
Porsanger, J. (2004). An essay about indigenous methodology. Nordlit: Tidsskrift i litteratur og kultur [Nordlit: Journal of Literature and Culture], 15, 105-120.
https://doi.org/10.7557/13.1910
Ragin, C. C. (1987). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Said, E. W. (2001). Orientalismen [Orientalism]. Gjøvik, Norway: De norske bokklubbene.
Saus, M. (2008a). Kontekstuelt barnevern. Barnevernet i det samiske landskap [Contextual child protection. Child protection in the Sami landscape]. (Doctoral dissertation), Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child Welfare Services Development Centre in Northern-Norway], Tromsø, Norway.
Saus, M. (2008b). Kunnskapsstatus og kunnskapsbehov -for barnevernet i samiske områder [The status and need of knowledge - Child protection in the Sami areas]. Tromsø, Norway: Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child Welfare Services Development Centre in Northern-Norway].
Saus, M. (2010). Cultural competence and children in the North. In E.-L. Kronqvist & P. Hyvönen (Eds.), Insights and outlouds: Childhood research in the North Oulu: Oulu University Press.
Saus, M., Salamonsen, A., Douglas, M., Hansen, K. L., & Thode, S. K. (2017). Utredning om barnevern for den samiske befolkningen, innvandrere og nasjonale minoriteter i Norge. Kompetansehevende tiltak, kunnskapsmiljø og samiske barns særlige rettigheter [Report on child protection services for the Sami population, immigrants and national minorities in Norway. Competencies-enhancing measures, knowledge community and the special rights of Sami children]. RKBU Nord, UiT the Arctic University of Tromsø. Tromsø, Norway: RKBU Nord, UiT the Arctic University of Tromsø.
Selle, P., Semb, A. J., Stømsnes, K., & Nordø, Å. D. (2015). Den samiske medborgeren [The Sámi fellow citizen]. Oslo, Norway: Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Shanley, K. W., & Evjen, B. (2015). Mapping Indigenous Presence. Tucson, United States: University of Arizona Press.
Skogvang, S. F. (2009). Samerett [Sami Rights] (2nd ed.). Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing Methodologies. Research and indigenous peoples. London, United Kingdom: Zed Books.
Tamburro, A. (2013). Including decolonization in social work education and practice. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 2(1), 1-16.
The Maori Perspective Advisory Committee. (1998/2001). PUAO-TE-ATA-TU, The Report of the Ministeral Advisory Committee on a Maori Perspective for the Departement of Social Welfare. Wellington, New Zealand.
Tsang, A. K. T. (2001). Representation of Ethnic Identity in North American Social Work Literature: A Dossier of the Chinese People. Social Work, 46(3), 229-243.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/46.3.229
United States Code: Tilte 25 - Indians. (1978). Indian Child Welfare Act.
Utter, J. (2001). American Indians: Answers to today's questions (2nd ed.). Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press.
Vocabulary Dictionary (2017). Vocabulary.com Dictionalry. Retrieved from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/colonizing (08.11.2017).
Weaver, H. N. (1999). Indigenous People and the Social Work Profession: Defining Culturally Competent Services. Social Work, 44, 217-225.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/44.3.217
Weaver, H. N. (2004). The Elements of Cultural Competence. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 13(1), 19-35.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J051v13n01_02
White Bison (2017). Mending Broken Hearts. Retrieved from http://www.whitebison.org/Training/Mending_Broken_Hearts.aspx
Wilkinson, S. (1998). Focus groups in health research: Eexploring the meanings of health and illness. J Health Psychol, 3(3), 329-348.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539800300304
Zachariassen, K., Saba, I., Larsen, A., & Fokstad, P. (2012). Samiske nasjonale strategar: Samepolitikk og nasjonsbygging 1900-1940 [Sami national strategists: Sami policy and nation-building 1900-1940]. Kárášjohka, Norway: ČálliidLágádus.
Anaya, S. J. (2004). Indigenous Peoples in International Law. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Belone, C., Gonzalez-Santin, E., Gustavsson, N., MacEachron, A. E., & Perry, T. (2002). Social services: The Navajo way. Child Welfare, 81(5), 773-790.
Bennett, B., Zubrzycki, J., & Bacon, V. (2011). What Do We Know? The Experiences of Social Workers Working alongside Aboriginal People. Australian Social Work, 64(1), 20-37.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2010.511677
Bernardi, B. (1978). The concept and dynamics of culture. Berlin/Boston, Germany/Massachusetts: De Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110807745
Bhabha, H. K. (1994/2004). The Location of Culture (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge Classics.
Blaikie, N. (2010). Designing Social Research (2nd ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.
Boine, E. M. (2004). Den kulturelle kontekstens betydning i sosialt arbeid i Sápmi [The meaning of cultural context in social work in Sápmi]. In H. Eidheim & V. Stordahl (Eds.), Kulturmøte og terapi i Sápmi [The meeting of culture and therapy in Sápmi] (2nd ed., pp. 63-82). Vaasa, Finland: Davvi Griji.
Boine, E. M. (2007). Samisk kulturkompetanse og nettverksbygging [Sámi cultural competence and network building]. Tromsø, Norway: Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child protection Development Centre in Northern Norway].
Boine, E. M. (2012). Minoritetskultur i barneverninstitusjon [Minority culture in child protection institutions]. In R. G. Gjærum, M. Saus, & A. Strandbu (Eds.), Barns inntrykk, uttrykk og avtrykk: Om kreativitet og medbestemmelse [Children's impressions, expressions and interpretations: On creativity and co-determination] (Vol. BUKS 56). Odense, Denmark: Syddansk universitetsforlag.
Boine, E. M., & Saus, M. (2012). Saamelaisten isien Kasvatusstrategioita [The child rearing strategies of Sami fathers]. In A. Lauriala (Ed.), Koulu ja pohjoisen pojat [The school and the boys of the north]. Rovaniemi, Finland: University of Lapland Lapin Yliopisto.
Brave Heart, M. Y. H., & DeBruyn, L. M. (1998). The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 8(2), 56-78.
https://doi.org/10.5820/aian.0802.1998.60
Burford, G., & Hudson, J. (2000). General introduction: Family group conferencing programming. In G. Burford & J. Hudson (Eds.), Family group conferencing - New directions in community-centred child & family practice. New York, New York: Transaction Publishers.
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016). Racial Disproportionality and Disparity in Child Welfare. Retrieved from the Children's Bureau, file:///H:/Downloads/Child%20Welfare%20infromation%20Gateway.pdf
Comaroff, J. (1996). Ethnicity, Nationalism, and the Politics of Differense in an Age of Revolution. In E. Wilmsen & P. McAllister (Eds.), The Politics of Difference. Ethnic Premises in a World of Power. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
Crampton, A. (2015). Decolonizing Social Work "Best Practices" through a Philosophy of Impermanence. Journal of Indigeneous Social Development, 4(1), 1-11.
Dankertsen, A. (2014). Samisk artikulasjon: Melankoli, tap og forsoning i en (nord)norsk hverdag [Sami articulation: Melancholy, loss and reconciliation in (Northern) Norwegian day-to-day life]. (Doctoral dissertation), Nordland University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Bodø, Norway.
Dogan, M. (2002). Strategies in comparative sociology. Comparative Sociology, 1(1), 63-92.
https://doi.org/10.1163/156913202317346755
Drywater-Whitekiller, V. (2014). Family Group Conferencing: An Indigenous Practice Approach to Compliance With the Indian Child Welfare Act. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 8, 260-278.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2014.907102
Eriksen, A., Hansen, K. L., Javo, C., & Schei, B. (2015). Emotional, physical and sexual violence among Sami and non-Sami populations in Norway: The SAMINOR 2 questionnaire study. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 43(6), 588-596.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494815585936
Eriksen, T. H., & Sørheim, T. (2006). Kulturforskjeller i praksis. Perspektiver på det flerkulturelle Norge [Cultural differences in practice. Perspectives on multicultural Norway] (4th ed.). Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Evans-Campbell, T. (2008). Historical Trauma in American Indian/Native Alaska Communities: A Multilevel Framework for Exploring Impacts on Individuals, Families, and Communities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 316-338.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312290
Fisher-Borne, M., Cain, J. M., & Martin, S. L. (2015). From mastery to accountability: Cultural humility as an alternative to cultural competence. Social Work Education, 34(2), 165-181.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2014.977244
Fong, R., Spickard, P. R., & Ewalt, P. L. (1995). A Multiracial Reality: Issues for Social Work. Social Work, 40(6), 725-728.
Godinet, M. T., Arnsberger, P., Li, F., & Kreif, T. (2010). Disproportionality, Ohana Conferencing, and the Hawai'i Child Welfare System. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 4, 387-405.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2010.526898
Goulding, D., Steels, B., & McGarty, C. (2016). A cross-cultural research experience: Developing an appropriate methodology that respectfully incorporates both Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(5), 783-801.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1081960
Haavind, H. (2000). Kjønn og fortolkende metode. Metodiske muligheter i kvalitativ forsking [Gender and interpretative methods. Methodological opportunities in Qualitative research]. Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Akademiske.
Hart, M. A. (2010). Indigenous Worldviews, Knowledge, and Research: The Development of an Indigenous Research Paradigm. Indigenous Voices in Social Work, 1(1), 1-16.
Henriksen, J. E. (2004a). Den samiske storfamilien i et nettverksperspektiv [The Sami extended family from a network-based perspective]. In I. M. Tronvoll, A. Moe, & J. E. Henriksen (Eds.), Hjelp i kontekst [Help in context] (pp. 40-59). Otta, Norway: Idut.
Henriksen, J. E. (2004b). Det kultur-kontekstuelle nettverksdiagrammet som redskap i familieråd og nettverksarbeid [The culture-contextual network diagram as a tool in family group conferencing and network work]. In I. M. Tronvoll, A. Moe, & J. E. Henriksen (Eds.), Hjelp i kontekst [Help in context] (pp. 60-72). Otta, Norway: Idut.
Henriksen, J. E. (2016). From housing campaign to multicultural understanding: The development of professional social work in Sámi areas in Norway. International Social Work, 59(5), 587-599.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816648203
Herring, S., Spangaro, J., Lauw, M., & McNamara, L. (2013). The Intersection of Trauma, Racism, and Cultural Competence in Effective Work with Aboriginal People: Waiting for Trust. Australian Social Work, 66(1), 104-117.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2012.697566
Herzberg, L. (2013). Shared decision-making: A voice for the Lakota people. Child & Family Social Work, 18(4), 477-486.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2012.00867.x
Hill, R. B. (2007). An analysis of racial/ethnic disproportionality and disparity at the national, state, and county levels: Casey-CSSP Alliance for Racial Equity in Child Welfare.
Jacobs, M. A., & Saus, M. (2012). Child Welfare Services for Indigenous Populations: A Comparison of Child Welfare Histories, Policies, Practices and Laws for American Indians and Norwegian Sámis. Child Care in Practice, 18(3), 271-290.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2012.683777
Jenkins, R. (2008). Rethinking Ethnicity. Arguments and Explorations (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, London; New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications.
Johansen, S. B. (2004). "...har alltid levd i fred og fordragelighet med hverandre." Problemer i kjølvannet av fornorskningen [''...have always lived in peace and tolerance with each other''. Problems in the aftermath of Norwegianisation]. In H. Eidheim & V. Stordahl (Eds.), Kulturmøte og terapi i Sápmi [The meeting of culture and therapy in Sápmi] (2nd ed., pp. 83-106). Finland: Davvi Girji.
Järvensivu, L., Pohjola, A., & Romakkaniemi, M. (2016). Locating Sámi social work in Finland: Meanings produced by social workers in working with Sámi people. International Social Work, 59(5), 600-613.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816646817
Kirmayer, L. J., Gone, J. P., & Moses, J. (2014). Rethinking Historical Trauma. Transcult Psychiatry, 51(3), 299-319. doi:10.1177/1363461514536358
https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514536358
Kraus, P. A. (2015). Democracy's Challenge: Nordic Minority Politics in the European Context. In P. A. Kraus & P. Kivisto (Eds.), The Challenge of Minority Integration Politics and Policies in the Nordic Nations. Warschau, Poland and Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110441116
Križ, K., & Skivenes, M. (2013). Systemic differences in views on risk: A comparative case vignette study of risk assessment in England, Norway and the United States (California). Children and Youth Services Review, 35(11), 1862-1870.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.001
Lawler, M. J., LaPlante, K. D., Giger, J. T., & Norris, D. S. (2012). Overrepresentation of Native American Children in Foster Care: An Independent Construct? Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 21, 95-110.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2012.647344
Lawrence, J. (2000). The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women. American Indian Quarterly, 24(3), 400-419.
https://doi.org/10.1353/aiq.2000.0008
Lupton, C., & Nixon, P. (1999). Empowering Practice? A critical appraisal of the family group conference approach. Bristol, United Kingdom: The Policy Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t88xs6
Mills, M., Van de Bunt, G. G., & De Bruijn, J. (2006). Comparative research: Persistent problems and promising solutions. International Sociology, 21(5), 619-631.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580906067833
Nicolai, S. S., & Saus, M. (2013). Acknowledging the past while looking to the future: Conceptualizing indigenous child trauma. Child Welfare, 92(4), 55.
Niles, M. D., & Byers, L. G. (2008). History Matters: United States Policy and Indigenous Early Childhood Intervention. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 9(3), 191-201.
https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2008.9.3.191
NOU 1984: 18. Om samenes rettsstilling [On the legal status of the Sami]. Retrieved from Oslo, Norway: Justisdepartementet.
Nygård, R. H., & Saus, M. (2016). Emphasizing indigenous communities in social work research ethics. International Social Work, 59(5), 666-678.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872816646815
Oskal, N. (2003). Samisk offentlighet og demokrati på norsk [The Sami public sphere and democracy in Norwegian]. In B. Bjerkli & P. Selle (Eds.), Samer, Makt og Demokrati. Sametinget og den nye samiske offentligheten [The Sami, Power and Democracy. The Sami Parliament and the new Sami public sphere] (pp. 318-337). Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal.
Pettersen, T. (2015). Sámi ethnicity as a variable. Premises and implications for population-based studies on health and living conditions in Norway. UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
Porsanger, J. (2004). An essay about indigenous methodology. Nordlit: Tidsskrift i litteratur og kultur [Nordlit: Journal of Literature and Culture], 15, 105-120.
https://doi.org/10.7557/13.1910
Ragin, C. C. (1987). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Said, E. W. (2001). Orientalismen [Orientalism]. Gjøvik, Norway: De norske bokklubbene.
Saus, M. (2008a). Kontekstuelt barnevern. Barnevernet i det samiske landskap [Contextual child protection. Child protection in the Sami landscape]. (Doctoral dissertation), Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child Welfare Services Development Centre in Northern-Norway], Tromsø, Norway.
Saus, M. (2008b). Kunnskapsstatus og kunnskapsbehov -for barnevernet i samiske områder [The status and need of knowledge - Child protection in the Sami areas]. Tromsø, Norway: Barnevernets Utviklingssenter i Nord-Norge [Child Welfare Services Development Centre in Northern-Norway].
Saus, M. (2010). Cultural competence and children in the North. In E.-L. Kronqvist & P. Hyvönen (Eds.), Insights and outlouds: Childhood research in the North Oulu: Oulu University Press.
Saus, M., Salamonsen, A., Douglas, M., Hansen, K. L., & Thode, S. K. (2017). Utredning om barnevern for den samiske befolkningen, innvandrere og nasjonale minoriteter i Norge. Kompetansehevende tiltak, kunnskapsmiljø og samiske barns særlige rettigheter [Report on child protection services for the Sami population, immigrants and national minorities in Norway. Competencies-enhancing measures, knowledge community and the special rights of Sami children]. RKBU Nord, UiT the Arctic University of Tromsø. Tromsø, Norway: RKBU Nord, UiT the Arctic University of Tromsø.
Selle, P., Semb, A. J., Stømsnes, K., & Nordø, Å. D. (2015). Den samiske medborgeren [The Sámi fellow citizen]. Oslo, Norway: Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Shanley, K. W., & Evjen, B. (2015). Mapping Indigenous Presence. Tucson, United States: University of Arizona Press.
Skogvang, S. F. (2009). Samerett [Sami Rights] (2nd ed.). Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing Methodologies. Research and indigenous peoples. London, United Kingdom: Zed Books.
Tamburro, A. (2013). Including decolonization in social work education and practice. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 2(1), 1-16.
The Maori Perspective Advisory Committee. (1998/2001). PUAO-TE-ATA-TU, The Report of the Ministeral Advisory Committee on a Maori Perspective for the Departement of Social Welfare. Wellington, New Zealand.
Tsang, A. K. T. (2001). Representation of Ethnic Identity in North American Social Work Literature: A Dossier of the Chinese People. Social Work, 46(3), 229-243.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/46.3.229
United States Code: Tilte 25 - Indians. (1978). Indian Child Welfare Act.
Utter, J. (2001). American Indians: Answers to today's questions (2nd ed.). Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press.
Vocabulary Dictionary (2017). Vocabulary.com Dictionalry. Retrieved from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/colonizing (08.11.2017).
Weaver, H. N. (1999). Indigenous People and the Social Work Profession: Defining Culturally Competent Services. Social Work, 44, 217-225.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/44.3.217
Weaver, H. N. (2004). The Elements of Cultural Competence. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 13(1), 19-35.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J051v13n01_02
White Bison (2017). Mending Broken Hearts. Retrieved from http://www.whitebison.org/Training/Mending_Broken_Hearts.aspx
Wilkinson, S. (1998). Focus groups in health research: Eexploring the meanings of health and illness. J Health Psychol, 3(3), 329-348.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539800300304
Zachariassen, K., Saba, I., Larsen, A., & Fokstad, P. (2012). Samiske nasjonale strategar: Samepolitikk og nasjonsbygging 1900-1940 [Sami national strategists: Sami policy and nation-building 1900-1940]. Kárášjohka, Norway: ČálliidLágádus.
Downloads
Published
2018-10-26
How to Cite
Nygård, R. H., Saus, M., & Nicolai, S. S. (2018). Conceptualization of Culture and Ethnicity within Social Work in Two Indigenous Communities: Implications for Culturally Adequate Social Work. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 13(2), 4–30. https://doi.org/10.31265/jcsw.v13i2.174
Issue
Section
Articles