Special rights within universal welfare
Assistance to trafficking victims in Norway
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31265/jcsw.v11i1.134Keywords:
human trafficking, social work, Institutional Ethnography, best practiceAbstract
Over the past two decades, several measures have been developed to provide assistance to persons defined as victims of trafficking. This article describes and discusses the organization of barriers and access to assistance (such as housing, medical assistance and subsistence support) for this group in Norway, taking as its starting point the daily practice of social workers and using an institutional ethnographic approach. Of great significance to access to assistance are the different administrative statuses that trafficking victims are assigned and move between, thus having rights granted or taken away. The negotiation of these administrative categories and navigation of conflicting legislation become a central aspect of social workers’ daily practice. Persons defined as ‘trafficking victims’ are eligible for a special residence permit, while assistance in Norway in practice is provided through the universal welfare system. ‘Human trafficking’ and ‘trafficking victim’ are operational categories in criminal law and immigration legislation, but they are not administrative categories for welfare provision. Instead, being defined as a trafficking victim functions as an inroad to assignation of other administrative categories (also dependent on residence and registration statuses) that determine what assistance is or is not available. Gaps and inconsistencies between institutional and legal complexes arise when one small group of people are awarded special measure rights within a universal system, creating a bureaucratically complicated and ‘messy’ path to assistance. This ‘messiness’ does not mean that it does not always work. However, it appears to work best for those who fit well with the modern Norwegian bureaucracy, e.g. in terms of being able to document identity and stay within one administrative status, and worst for those who do not. Hence, the system for victim assistance appears to be the least accessible for some of the least privileged members of the group it is intended for.References
Bjerkan, L. (Ed.) (2005). A Life of One’s Own: Rehabilitation of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation. Fafo Report 477. Oslo: Fafo.
Brunovskis, A. (2012). Balancing Protection and Prosecution in Anti-trafficking Policies: A Comparative Analysis of Reflection Periods and Related Temporary Residence Permits for Victims of Trafficking in the Nordic Countries, Belgium and Italy. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Brunovskis, A., & Surtees, R. (2007). Leaving the past behind: When victims of trafficking decline assistance. Fafo Report 2007:40. Oslo: Fafo.
Brunovskis, A., & Surtees, R. (2013). Coming home: Challenges in family reintegration for trafficked women. Qualitative Social Work, 12(4), 454-472.
Brunovskis, A., Tveit, M., & Skilbrei, M-L. (2010). Pusterom eller ny start? Evaluering av refleksjonsperioden for ofre for menneskehandel. Fafo Report 2010:45. Oslo: Fafo.
Brunovskis, A., & Tyldum, G. (2004). Crossing borders: An empirical study of transnational prostitution and trafficking in human being. Fafo Report 426. Oslo: Fafo.
Campbell, M. L. (1998). Institutional ethnography and experience as data. Qualitative Sociology, 21(1), 55-73.
Council of Europe (2005). Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings and its Explanatory Report, Council of Europe Treaty Series, No. 197, 16.V.2005. Retrieved from: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Convntn/CETS197_en.asp
Derks, A. (1998). Reintegration of victims of trafficking in Cambodia. Geneva: IOM.
DeVault, M. L., & McCoy, L. (2006). Institutional Ethnography: Using interviews to Investigate Ruling Relations. In D. E. Smith (Ed.), Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Doezema, J. (2000). Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women. Gender Issues, 18(1), 23-50.
EU Council (2004). EU Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004: On the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subjects of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities. Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32004L0081.
Farrell, A. (2014). Environmental and Institutional Influences on Police Agency Responses to Human Trafficking. Police Quarterly, 17(1), 3-29.
Folkeregisterloven. (1970). Lov om folkeregistrering (folkeregisterloven). Retrieved from https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1970-01-16-1
Forskrift om sosiale tjenester, bopelsløse.(2012). Forskrift om sosiale tjenester for personer uten fast bopel i Norge. Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-12-16-1251
Forskrift til sosialtjenesteloven. (1992). Forskrift til lov om sosiale tjenester m.v. Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1992-12-04-915
Friesendorf, C. (2007). Pathologies of security governance: Efforts against human trafficking in Europe. Security Dialogue, 38(3), 379-402.
Gajic-Veljanoski, O., & Stewart, D. E. (2007). Women Trafficked Into Prostitution: Determinants, Human Rights and Health Needs. Transcultural Psychiatry 44(3), 338-358.
Gallagher, A. (2001). Human rights and the new UN protocols on trafficking and migrant smuggling: A preliminary analysis. Human Rights Quarterly, 23(4), 975-1004.
Gallagher, A. (2006). Recent Legal Developments in the Field of Human Trafficking: A Critical Review of the 2005 European Convention and Related Instruments. European Journal of Migration and Law, 8(2), 163-189.
Griffith, A. I., & Smith, D. (2014). Introduction. In A. I. Griffith. & D. Smith (Eds.), Under New Public Management. Institutional Ethnographies of Changing Front-Line Work. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
Hodge, D. R., & Lietz, C. A. (2007). The International Sexual Trafficking of Women and Children: A Review of the Literature. Affilia, 22(2), 163-174.
Justis- og politidepartementet (2010). GI-31/2010 Instruks om oppholdstillatelse til vitner i sak om menneskehandel mv. Retrieved from: https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/gi-312010-instruks-om-oppholdstillatelse/id627772/
Kato, Y. (2007). Reintegration of Thai female returnees from Japan and their children in Thailand. Paper presented at the International Development Studies Conference on Mainstreaming Human Security: The Asian Contribution, Bangkok, October 4-5, 2007. Available at: humansecurityconf.polsci.chula.ac.th/Documents/Presentations/Yuko.doc
Kempadoo, K. (2007). The war on human trafficking in the Caribbean. Race & Class, 49(2), 79-85.
Kommunal- og regionaldepartementet. (2004). 2004-03-08-KRD Instruks – refleksjonsperiode til offer for menneskehandel. Retrieved from: https://www.udiregelverk.no/en/archive/circulars-and-instructions-from-the-ministries/2004-03-08-KRD/
Kootstra, T., & Commandeur, X. (2004) ‘“If our skirt is torn”..: Safe Return and Social Inclusion of Victims of Traffic in Human Beings, An Inventory of Neglected Areas in Ten European and Asian Countries. The Netherlands: ICCO.
Lisborg, A. (2009). Re-thinking reintegration: What do returning victims really want and need? Evidence from Thailand and the Philippines. GMS-07 SIREN report, Bangkok, Thailand: UNIAP.
Lisborg, A., & Plambech, S. (2009). Going back, moving on. A synthesis report of the trends and experiences of returned trafficking victims in Thailand and the Philippines. Bangkok: International Labor Organization.
Police Directorate (2015). Rapport fra koordineringsenheten for ofre for menneskehandel – 2014.
Politidirektoratet (n.d.). You have been granted a reflection period. Retrieved from https://www.politi.no/vedlegg/rapport/Vedlegg_398.pdf
Sinding, C. (2010). Using Institutional Ethnography to Understand the Production of Health Care Disparities. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1656-1663.
Skatteetaten. (n.d.a) This is the National Registry. Retrieved 11 Jan 2016 from: http://www.skatteetaten.no/en/Person/National-Registry/This-is-the-National-Registry/
Skatteetaten. (n.d.b.) Norsk identitetsnummer. Retrieved 7 Oct 2015 from https://www.skatteetaten.no/no/taxnorway/Felles-innhold-benyttes-i-flere-malgrupper/Artikler/Norsk-identitetsnummer/
Smith, D. E. (1987). The everyday world as problematic: A feminist sociology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Smith, D. E. (2005). Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People: Lanham: AltaMira Press.
Smith, D. E. (Ed.) (2006a). Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Smith, D. E. (2006b). Introduction. In D. E. Smith (Ed.), Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Sosialtjenesteloven. (1991). Lov om sosiale tjenester m.v. (sosialtjenesteloven). Available at: https://lovdata.no/tjenester/pro/
Sosialtjenesteloven. (2010). Lov om sosiale tjenester i arbeids- og velferdsforvaltningen (sosialtjenesteloven). Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2009-12-18-131
Sullivan, B. (2003). Trafficking in women. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 5(1), 67-91.
Sønsterudbråten, S. (2012). Lovlig med forbehold. Bruk av oppholdstillatelser med begrensninger for å øke andelen asylsøkere som dokumenterer sin identitet. Fafo report 2012:38, Oslo: Fafo.
Truong, T.-D. (2006). Poverty, gender and human trafficking in sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking best practices in migration management Paris: UNESCO.
United Nations (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. Retrieved from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/treaties/CTOC/#Fulltext
Utlendingsdirektoratet, (4 November 2011). Utlendingsdirektoratets høringssvar til forskrift til lov om sosiale tjenester i arbeids- og velferdsforvaltningen. Retrieved from: https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/691b1421ea8e4c4b923346f82491c3f2/udi.pdf
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2012.) RS 2012-011 Schengen-standardisert oppholdskort med elektronisk lagret biometri. Retrieved from: https://www.udiregelverk.no/en/documents/udi-circulars/rs-2012-011/
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2013). RS 2013-014 Oppholdsstillatelse for utlendinger som antas å være utsatt for menneskehandel (refleksjonsperiode mv.). Retrieved from: http://www.udiregelverk.no/no/rettskilder/udi-rundskriv/rs-2013-014/
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (n.d.). Residence cards. Retrieved 9 Oct 2015 from https://www.udi.no/en/word-definitions/-residence-cards/
Utlendingsforskriften (2010). Forskrift om utlendingers adgang til riket og deres opphold her (utlendingsforskriften). Retrieved from: http://www.udiregelverk.no/no/rettskilder/sentrale/utlendingsforskriften/kap8/
Van Hook, M. P., Gjermeni, E., & Haxhiymeri, E. (2006). Sexual trafficking of women. Tragic proportions and attempted solutions in Albania. International Social Work, 49(1), 29-40.
Weitzer, R. (2007). The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade. Politics and Society, 35(3), 447-475.
Wan Ismail, W. N. I., Raja Ariffin, R. N., & Kee Cheok, C. (2014). Human Trafficking in Malaysia: Bureaucratic Challenges in Policy Implementation. Administration & Society. doi: 10.1177/0095399714532271
Weitzer, R. (2014). New Directions in Research on Human Trafficking. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 6-24.
Widerberg, K. (2008). Dorothy E. Smith. In Stones (Ed.), Key Sociological Thinkers. London: Palgrave.
Widerberg, K. (1999). Køn og samfund. In H. Andersen & L. B. Kaspersen (Eds.), Klassisk og moderne samfundsteori. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag.
Zhang, S. X. (2009). Beyond the ‘Natasha’ story – a review and critique of current research on sex trafficking. Global Crime, 10(3), 178-195.
Zimmerman, C. (2003). The health risks and consequences of trafficking in women and adolescents. Findings from a European study. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Zimmerman, C. (2006). Stolen smiles: A summary report on the physical and psychological health consequences of women and adolescents trafficked in Europe. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Brunovskis, A. (2012). Balancing Protection and Prosecution in Anti-trafficking Policies: A Comparative Analysis of Reflection Periods and Related Temporary Residence Permits for Victims of Trafficking in the Nordic Countries, Belgium and Italy. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Brunovskis, A., & Surtees, R. (2007). Leaving the past behind: When victims of trafficking decline assistance. Fafo Report 2007:40. Oslo: Fafo.
Brunovskis, A., & Surtees, R. (2013). Coming home: Challenges in family reintegration for trafficked women. Qualitative Social Work, 12(4), 454-472.
Brunovskis, A., Tveit, M., & Skilbrei, M-L. (2010). Pusterom eller ny start? Evaluering av refleksjonsperioden for ofre for menneskehandel. Fafo Report 2010:45. Oslo: Fafo.
Brunovskis, A., & Tyldum, G. (2004). Crossing borders: An empirical study of transnational prostitution and trafficking in human being. Fafo Report 426. Oslo: Fafo.
Campbell, M. L. (1998). Institutional ethnography and experience as data. Qualitative Sociology, 21(1), 55-73.
Council of Europe (2005). Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings and its Explanatory Report, Council of Europe Treaty Series, No. 197, 16.V.2005. Retrieved from: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Convntn/CETS197_en.asp
Derks, A. (1998). Reintegration of victims of trafficking in Cambodia. Geneva: IOM.
DeVault, M. L., & McCoy, L. (2006). Institutional Ethnography: Using interviews to Investigate Ruling Relations. In D. E. Smith (Ed.), Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Doezema, J. (2000). Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women. Gender Issues, 18(1), 23-50.
EU Council (2004). EU Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004: On the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subjects of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities. Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32004L0081.
Farrell, A. (2014). Environmental and Institutional Influences on Police Agency Responses to Human Trafficking. Police Quarterly, 17(1), 3-29.
Folkeregisterloven. (1970). Lov om folkeregistrering (folkeregisterloven). Retrieved from https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1970-01-16-1
Forskrift om sosiale tjenester, bopelsløse.(2012). Forskrift om sosiale tjenester for personer uten fast bopel i Norge. Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-12-16-1251
Forskrift til sosialtjenesteloven. (1992). Forskrift til lov om sosiale tjenester m.v. Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1992-12-04-915
Friesendorf, C. (2007). Pathologies of security governance: Efforts against human trafficking in Europe. Security Dialogue, 38(3), 379-402.
Gajic-Veljanoski, O., & Stewart, D. E. (2007). Women Trafficked Into Prostitution: Determinants, Human Rights and Health Needs. Transcultural Psychiatry 44(3), 338-358.
Gallagher, A. (2001). Human rights and the new UN protocols on trafficking and migrant smuggling: A preliminary analysis. Human Rights Quarterly, 23(4), 975-1004.
Gallagher, A. (2006). Recent Legal Developments in the Field of Human Trafficking: A Critical Review of the 2005 European Convention and Related Instruments. European Journal of Migration and Law, 8(2), 163-189.
Griffith, A. I., & Smith, D. (2014). Introduction. In A. I. Griffith. & D. Smith (Eds.), Under New Public Management. Institutional Ethnographies of Changing Front-Line Work. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
Hodge, D. R., & Lietz, C. A. (2007). The International Sexual Trafficking of Women and Children: A Review of the Literature. Affilia, 22(2), 163-174.
Justis- og politidepartementet (2010). GI-31/2010 Instruks om oppholdstillatelse til vitner i sak om menneskehandel mv. Retrieved from: https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/gi-312010-instruks-om-oppholdstillatelse/id627772/
Kato, Y. (2007). Reintegration of Thai female returnees from Japan and their children in Thailand. Paper presented at the International Development Studies Conference on Mainstreaming Human Security: The Asian Contribution, Bangkok, October 4-5, 2007. Available at: humansecurityconf.polsci.chula.ac.th/Documents/Presentations/Yuko.doc
Kempadoo, K. (2007). The war on human trafficking in the Caribbean. Race & Class, 49(2), 79-85.
Kommunal- og regionaldepartementet. (2004). 2004-03-08-KRD Instruks – refleksjonsperiode til offer for menneskehandel. Retrieved from: https://www.udiregelverk.no/en/archive/circulars-and-instructions-from-the-ministries/2004-03-08-KRD/
Kootstra, T., & Commandeur, X. (2004) ‘“If our skirt is torn”..: Safe Return and Social Inclusion of Victims of Traffic in Human Beings, An Inventory of Neglected Areas in Ten European and Asian Countries. The Netherlands: ICCO.
Lisborg, A. (2009). Re-thinking reintegration: What do returning victims really want and need? Evidence from Thailand and the Philippines. GMS-07 SIREN report, Bangkok, Thailand: UNIAP.
Lisborg, A., & Plambech, S. (2009). Going back, moving on. A synthesis report of the trends and experiences of returned trafficking victims in Thailand and the Philippines. Bangkok: International Labor Organization.
Police Directorate (2015). Rapport fra koordineringsenheten for ofre for menneskehandel – 2014.
Politidirektoratet (n.d.). You have been granted a reflection period. Retrieved from https://www.politi.no/vedlegg/rapport/Vedlegg_398.pdf
Sinding, C. (2010). Using Institutional Ethnography to Understand the Production of Health Care Disparities. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1656-1663.
Skatteetaten. (n.d.a) This is the National Registry. Retrieved 11 Jan 2016 from: http://www.skatteetaten.no/en/Person/National-Registry/This-is-the-National-Registry/
Skatteetaten. (n.d.b.) Norsk identitetsnummer. Retrieved 7 Oct 2015 from https://www.skatteetaten.no/no/taxnorway/Felles-innhold-benyttes-i-flere-malgrupper/Artikler/Norsk-identitetsnummer/
Smith, D. E. (1987). The everyday world as problematic: A feminist sociology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Smith, D. E. (2005). Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People: Lanham: AltaMira Press.
Smith, D. E. (Ed.) (2006a). Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Smith, D. E. (2006b). Introduction. In D. E. Smith (Ed.), Institutional ethnography as practice. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Sosialtjenesteloven. (1991). Lov om sosiale tjenester m.v. (sosialtjenesteloven). Available at: https://lovdata.no/tjenester/pro/
Sosialtjenesteloven. (2010). Lov om sosiale tjenester i arbeids- og velferdsforvaltningen (sosialtjenesteloven). Retrieved from: https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2009-12-18-131
Sullivan, B. (2003). Trafficking in women. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 5(1), 67-91.
Sønsterudbråten, S. (2012). Lovlig med forbehold. Bruk av oppholdstillatelser med begrensninger for å øke andelen asylsøkere som dokumenterer sin identitet. Fafo report 2012:38, Oslo: Fafo.
Truong, T.-D. (2006). Poverty, gender and human trafficking in sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking best practices in migration management Paris: UNESCO.
United Nations (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. Retrieved from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/treaties/CTOC/#Fulltext
Utlendingsdirektoratet, (4 November 2011). Utlendingsdirektoratets høringssvar til forskrift til lov om sosiale tjenester i arbeids- og velferdsforvaltningen. Retrieved from: https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/691b1421ea8e4c4b923346f82491c3f2/udi.pdf
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2012.) RS 2012-011 Schengen-standardisert oppholdskort med elektronisk lagret biometri. Retrieved from: https://www.udiregelverk.no/en/documents/udi-circulars/rs-2012-011/
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (2013). RS 2013-014 Oppholdsstillatelse for utlendinger som antas å være utsatt for menneskehandel (refleksjonsperiode mv.). Retrieved from: http://www.udiregelverk.no/no/rettskilder/udi-rundskriv/rs-2013-014/
Utlendingsdirektoratet. (n.d.). Residence cards. Retrieved 9 Oct 2015 from https://www.udi.no/en/word-definitions/-residence-cards/
Utlendingsforskriften (2010). Forskrift om utlendingers adgang til riket og deres opphold her (utlendingsforskriften). Retrieved from: http://www.udiregelverk.no/no/rettskilder/sentrale/utlendingsforskriften/kap8/
Van Hook, M. P., Gjermeni, E., & Haxhiymeri, E. (2006). Sexual trafficking of women. Tragic proportions and attempted solutions in Albania. International Social Work, 49(1), 29-40.
Weitzer, R. (2007). The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade. Politics and Society, 35(3), 447-475.
Wan Ismail, W. N. I., Raja Ariffin, R. N., & Kee Cheok, C. (2014). Human Trafficking in Malaysia: Bureaucratic Challenges in Policy Implementation. Administration & Society. doi: 10.1177/0095399714532271
Weitzer, R. (2014). New Directions in Research on Human Trafficking. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 6-24.
Widerberg, K. (2008). Dorothy E. Smith. In Stones (Ed.), Key Sociological Thinkers. London: Palgrave.
Widerberg, K. (1999). Køn og samfund. In H. Andersen & L. B. Kaspersen (Eds.), Klassisk og moderne samfundsteori. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag.
Zhang, S. X. (2009). Beyond the ‘Natasha’ story – a review and critique of current research on sex trafficking. Global Crime, 10(3), 178-195.
Zimmerman, C. (2003). The health risks and consequences of trafficking in women and adolescents. Findings from a European study. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Zimmerman, C. (2006). Stolen smiles: A summary report on the physical and psychological health consequences of women and adolescents trafficked in Europe. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Published
2016-04-01
How to Cite
Brunovskis, A. (2016). Special rights within universal welfare: Assistance to trafficking victims in Norway. Journal of Comparative Social Work, 11(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.31265/jcsw.v11i1.134
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